The brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), has been causing massive damage to various fruit and vegetable crops after its arrival in the USA, and more recently in Europe. To provide an alternative control measure to pesticides, the native egg parasitoid Anastatus bifasciatus (Geoffroy) (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae) was considered as a candidate biological control agent for inundative releases in Europe. In the risk assessment study presented here, all nine heteropteran and 14 out of 19 tested lepidopteran non-target species produced viable A. bifasciatus offspring. The proportion of A. bifasciatus females producing offspring did not differ between non-target and target for 19 out of the 28 non-target species. Larger host eggs corresponded to increased female-biased sex ratio of the offspring as well as an increase in size, particularly for females, with hind tibia lengths varying from 645.5 ± 46 to 1084 ± 28.5 μm. Larger females were also found to have higher offspring production and increased life expectancy. The results of this study confirmed the polyphagous nature of A. bifasciatus and suggest that a number of non-target species, including Lepidoptera of conservation interest, may be attacked in the field. Thus, non-target effects cannot entirely be ruled out, but more information is needed from semi-field and field studies to fully assess potential environmental risks due to inundative releases of this native parasitoid.
Biological control; Egg parasitoids; Risk assessment; Fundamental host range; Halyomorpha halys
Potential non-target effects following inundative releases of the European parasitoid Anastatus bifasciatus against the invasive Halyomorpha halys are unknown.
No-choice tests with 9 heteropteran and 19 lepidopteran non-target species were conducted in the laboratory.
Twenty-three non-target species were suitable hosts for A. bifasciatus; the proportion of females producing offspring did not differ between non-target and target for 19 out of 28 tested species.
Non-target effects due to spill-over cannot be ruled out, and further semi-field and field tests are necessary.
The brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB), Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), is an Asian species invasive in North America and Europe, and recently established in South America (Faúndez and Rider [
Current control strategies mainly rely on the application of broad-spectrum insecticides (Leskey et al. [
In China, Korea, and Japan, where the pest originates, its populations are primarily regulated by egg parasitoids in the genera Trissolcus (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) and Anastatus (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae) (Arakawa and Namura [
Studies searching for native egg parasitoids adopting the invasive H. halys as new host have been conducted in the USA and Europe exposing viable or freeze-killed sentinel H. halys eggs (Abram et al. [
The majority of Anastatus spp. are primary endoparasitoids of various insect orders (Askew [
A similar approach could also be possible in Europe, but the knowledge of the biology and ecology of A. bifasciatus in Europe is scarce. Genduso ([
Concerns regarding the safety of classical biological control using invertebrates, particularly the impact on non-target species, have been discussed intensively. As a result, procedures to select the safest biological control agent have been developed that assess the risks they pose beforehand (Bigler et al. [
The objectives of the present study were to determine the potential risks of inundative releases of A. bifasciatus for non-target species and to investigate whether their suitability differs from those of the target H. halys.
A H. halys colony was established from approximately 80 overwintered adults collected in Zurich and Basel, Switzerland, in 2012, and new individuals from both locations were added on an annual basis. The colony was kept in groups of up to 50 H. halys in polyester cages (‘BugDorm-4090 Insect Rearing Cage 47.5 × 47.5 × 47.5 cm’, MegaView Science Co. Ltd., Taichung, Taiwan) at 26 °C, 70% RH, and a 16L:8D photoperiod. Nymphs and adults were provided with combinations of beans, maize, peanuts and carrots, which were replaced twice a week. A variety of branches from different tree species (e.g. Sorbus aucuparia L., Cornus sanguinea L., Prunus avium L.) was added as food and oviposition substrate during summer. Folded black mesh was added to each rearing cage as an additional oviposition substrate.
The original colony of A. bifasciatus was established in 2013 from sentinel H. halys egg masses exposed near Fully, Canton of Valais, Switzerland. Adults were maintained in cylindrical plastic containers (100 × 115 mm), with a mesh top, which were placed above Petri dishes (90 × 20 mm) filled with honey water solution. Parasitoids were fed every second day with honey water via cotton wicks that bridged the Petri dishes with the rearing containers, while undiluted honey droplets were placed on top of the mesh. The containers were maintained in an incubator set at a light/temperature cycle of L 14 h/20 °C and D 10 h/15 °C. Parasitoids were provided twice a week with H. halys egg masses that were either fresh (< 24 h), had been stored at 10 °C for a maximum of 3 d, or frozen for up to one year at − 80 °C. Egg masses were glued to 2 × 10 cm cardboard pieces; frozen eggs were thawed for 30 min before gluing. Parasitized egg masses were removed and placed in cylindrical plastic containers (100 × 50 mm) kept at 26 °C, 70% RH, and a 16L:8D photoperiod until adult emergence. Upon the initial establishment of the laboratory colonies, specimens of A. bifasciatus were taxonomically identified by Lucian Fusu (University of Iasi, Romania).
Non-target species were selected according to the information on A. bifasciatus hosts available from the literature, phylogenetic relatedness and sympatry of target and non-target species, phenology, egg size, oviposition site, rareness, and accessibility (Kuhlmann et al. [
The aim of this experiment was to determine whether eggs of non-target hosts were suitable for parasitoid development. Host acceptance (= successful oviposition, without considering the suitability for development) was not measured because A. bifasciatus females do not mark parasitized eggs, and thus, host acceptance cannot be determined non-destructively. Since the experiment could not be conducted in one day, in each experimental set-up, similar numbers of randomly selected naïve, 4-day-old mated A. bifasciatus females were tested simultaneously on eggs of the target H. halys (positive control) and the non-target species selected (Table 1). Each parasitoid female was individually exposed for 24 h to 10 eggs of either the target or non-target, which were glued to cardboard squares (35 × 35 mm) and placed inside small plastic Petri dishes (54 × 14 mm). Eggs used were either fresh (< 24 h) or had been stored at 10 °C for a maximum of 3 days to prevent development. Prior to the experiment newly hatched A. bifasciatus females had been kept together with males for 4 days at 26 °C, 70% RH, and a 16L:8D photoperiod to ensure mating. Two drops of pure honey and honey water solution were added to the corners of the cardboard to provide the parasitoids with food during the experiment. After 24 h, the wasps were removed, and exposed eggs were checked daily for hatched hosts or parasitoids, which were then counted and sexed. All tests were conducted at 26 °C, 70% RH, and a 16L:8D photoperiod.
To compare the fitness of A. bifasciatus reared on target and non-target hosts, the parameters adult size, 48-h offspring production, and longevity were measured. Anastatus bifasciatus offspring that had emerged from the target (controls) and five selected non-target species (D. pini, E. versicolora, L. quercus, O. pruni and S. cynthia) in the no-choice black box experiment were used. For the offspring production experiment, male and female A. bifasciatus were transferred to rearing containers described above immediately after emergence and maintained at 26 °C, 70% RH, and a 16L:8D photoperiod. Wasps that had emerged from different host species were kept separately. Four to 5 days after emergence, A. bifasciatus females (n = 2-16 per non-target host species) were individually placed in a small plastic Petri dish (54 × 14 mm) that contained 10 fresh (< 24 h old) H. halys eggs glued to cardboard squares (35 × 35 mm). After 24 h, the wasps were transferred to new Petri dishes with a fresh set of H. halys eggs for another 24 h. The number of eggs provided over 2 days was limited to 20, as preliminary experiments had shown that A. bifasciatus females could produce no more than 16 offspring within 48 h [average 7.63 ± 3.80 (SD)] (Stahl et al. unpublished data).
For the longevity experiment, pairs of male and female wasps (n = 5-30 per host species), each originating from the same non-target host species or H. halys (control), were transferred immediately after emergence to plastic tubes (7 cm height and 3.3 cm diameter) with a mesh top. Tubes were placed in an incubator set at a light/temperature cycle of L 14 h/20 °C and D 10 h/15 °C. Wasps were provided with honey water solution, and mortality of wasps was recorded daily until all wasps had died. Dead parasitoid wasps were placed in 2-ml microtubes and submerged in 96% ethanol.
Photographs were taken of randomly chosen, stored specimens with a digital microscope to compare the size of offspring from different hosts and relating size to longevity. The length of their left hind tibia was then measured using the image processing program ImageJ (Rasband [
The proportion of A. bifasciatus females producing offspring on target and non-target hosts in the no-choice black box test was calculated by dividing the number of replicates producing offspring by the total number of replicates conducted. Pairwise comparisons between each non-target species and its respective H. halys control were made using a generalized linear model (GLM) of the binomial family (link = logit). For some non-target species, no parasitoid females produced offspring. In these cases of complete separation of factor levels, standard methods of logistic regressions are not able to estimate coefficients. For that reason, logistic regression with Firth’s bias correction (Heinze and Schemper [
The relationship between the size of the parasitoid offspring and the size of the host eggs they emerged from was measured with a linear regression for females and with a logarithmic regression for males.
Sex ratio was calculated as the percentage of female A. bifasciatus offspring for each single egg mass, which were then averaged for each host species. It was tested for dependence on host egg size with logistic regression using GLM (family = binomial, link = logit), number of female offspring as dependent, and the average weight of host eggs as independent variable.
The fecundity of F1 generation females was determined by their offspring production during 48 h. The relationship between the host species the tested parasitoid females emerged from and their offspring production was assessed pairwise with a GLM (family = Poisson, link = log).
Longevity of female offspring of selected host species was defined as number of days until death. The influence of the host species the parasitoids emerged from on their longevity was assessed pairwise for each non-target species and their respective H. halys controls with a log-rank test.
All statistics were carried out with R version 3.2.3 (Team [
Overall, 46.5% of A. bifasciatus females tested produced offspring when offered H. halys egg masses (controls). Even though standardized females were used, values for control replicates yielding parasitoid offspring were highly variable, ranging from 13 to 86% (Fig. 1), and dependent on the testing dates and cohorts of females used.Percentage of A. bifasciatus females producing offspring from heteropteran (a) and lepidopteran (b, c) non-target hosts (black bars). White bars represent the respective H. halys controls. N states the number of tested females. Asterisks indicate significant differences between treatment and control (GLM, family = binomial)
All ten heteropteran hosts exposed in no-choice tests produced viable A. bifasciatus offspring, including the target H. halys (Fig. 1a). Only in two species, G. lineatum and P. lituratus, the proportion of females producing viable offspring was significantly lower (binomial GLM, df = 108, χ
A wide range of offspring sizes as well as a pronounced sexual dimorphism with larger females and smaller males was observed for A. bifasciatus when reared from various European hosts (Table 2 and Fig. 2b). The average male hind tibia lengths ranged from 267 ± 19 μm (host: M. neustria) to 582 ± 23 μm (host: L. quercus), while in females it ranged from 645.5 ± 46 μm (host: C. fuscispinus) to 1084 ± 28.5 μm (host: L. quercus). Even bigger females (1119.5 ± 10 μm) emerged from A. mimosae, a large tropical species. The size of the male and female offspring significantly increased with host egg size (logarithmic regression, df = 19, t = 8.851, p < 0.001, R
The sex ratio of the offspring was significantly affected by the size of the host (binomial GLM, df = 600, z = − 9.24, p < 0.001; Fig. 3). From eggs smaller than 0.7 mg only males emerged, while above this threshold the proportion of female offspring increased with increasing size of host eggs. The highest female-biased sex ratio (76%) was received from the large tropical lepidopteran host A. mimosa. The proportion of males (51%) and females (49%) emerging from H. halys eggs was nearly balanced.Relationship between sex ratio of A. bifasciatus offspring emerged from heteropteran (squares) and lepidopteran (crosses) non-target hosts and size of host eggs expressed as mean weight of 10 host eggs (GLM, family = binomial, p < 0.001). Species that generated low numbers of offspring (< 20 individuals, see Table 2) were not included in the analysis; H. halys is marked black
The longevity of individual A. bifasciatus females emerged from the non-target hosts L. quercus, O. pruni, and E. versicolora as well as the target host ranged from 7 to 172 days at a light/temperature cycle of L 14 h/20 °C and D 10 h/15 °C (Fig. 4). Those females that had emerged from the host L. quercus, producing the largest eggs of the species tested and accordingly the largest females, lived significantly longer than those emerged from the H. halys controls (log-rank test, df = 1, χ
The offspring production of A. bifasciatus females emerged from non-target species, all of which produced larger females than H. halys, was generally higher than the offspring production of females emerged from H. halys (Fig. 5), but only for those emerged from S. cynthia and L. quercus, the difference was significant (Poisson GLM, df = 5, z = 3.14, p < 0.001 and df = 10, z = 2.26, p = 0.0254, respectively). For the other two non-targets, O. pruni and D. pini, the difference showed no statistical significance (Poisson GLM, df = 17, z = 0.799, p = 0.424 and df = 4, z = − 1.601, p = 0.1057, respectively). No significantly different offspring production could be found between females emerged from non-target hosts (Poisson GLM, df = 18, z = 1.15, p > 0.05).Mean offspring production of A. bifasciatus females originating from different host species, when offering 2 × 10 H. halys eggs over 2 × 24 h consecutively. Black bars represent offspring production of females emerged from non-target hosts and white bars offspring emergence of females emerged from H. halys (control). Females emerged from H. halys are smallest in size within this group (see Table 2). N states the number of tested females. P values are indicated on top of the compared pairs (GLM, family = gamma; post hoc Tukey)
Assessing the host range of potential biological control agents is a major step in risk analysis when exotic natural enemies are concerned, but also needs to be considered in inundative biological control with native candidates (van Lenteren and Loomans [
Surveys for native natural enemies attacking the invasive brown marmorated stink bug in Europe showed that the egg parasitoid A. bifasciatus is a potential candidate for inundative releases to mitigate damage in European fruit orchards due to oviposition peaks of H. halys (Haye et al. [
In laboratory no-choice tests, developmental suitability of non-target host species for A. bifasciatus was demonstrated by the successful production of progeny on 23 out of 28 tested non-target host species. Five out of seven species that were previously recorded as host of A. bifasciatus in the literature were confirmed: N. viridula (Genduso [
Apart from the Cossidae family, represented by only one species, all families tested included suitable host species. Overall, the majority of non-target species tested was as suitable as the target H. halys, while in two cases, S. pinastri and S. pyri, the proportion of females producing offspring was even higher than for the target. Interestingly, only one out of five species within the family Erebidae produced parasitoid offspring. Similar results were found for the generalist Trichogramma brassicae Bezdenko (Babendreier et al. [
Considering the continuous rearing of the A. bifasciatus colony on H. halys for about 35 generations, a shift in host preference may have led to an underestimation of A. bifasciatus females producing offspring on non-target species in comparison with natural A. bifasciatus populations or parasitoids reared on factitious hosts. In general, the proportion of A. bifasciatus females producing offspring when given eggs of the target H. halys was extremely variable. Since only little is known on the reproductive biology of this species, it is possible that, for example, using older or experienced females may have resulted in more consistent data across the controls.
The sex ratio of A. bifasciatus offspring was strongly dependent on the host egg size. Lepidopteran and heteropteran hosts with an egg size below 0.7 mg only produced male offspring. In hosts with eggs ranging from 0.9 to 1.9 mg the sex ratio was heavily male biased, whereas eggs larger than 4 mg produced significantly more females. Our results agree with the theory of conditional sex allocation, where the parasitoid offspring shifts towards a female bias with increasing host quality (Charnov [
For H. halys, the heteropteran species with the largest eggs tested (1.29 mg), the sex ratio was balanced, indicating that H. halys is a medium-quality host. However, most similar sized lepidopteran eggs yielded a less female-biased sex ratio of about 20-40% female offspring, providing some evidence that the quality of lepidopteran eggs is assessed as less good by A. bifasciatus compared to heteropteran hosts. Obviously, host quality was strongly correlated with host size, since larger host eggs yielded larger parasitoid offspring, which in turn profit from fitness advantages over smaller conspecifics (Arakawa et al. [
In many host-parasitoid systems female fecundity and longevity are positively correlated with female body size (Godfray [
Past examples suggest that even polyphagous parasitoids, which showed a broad host range in the laboratory, can be used for inundative releases because the parasitoid’s behaviour in the field indicates low risks for non-target species (Babendreier et al. [
Besides these direct effects, the arrival of an invasive species such as H. halys may also indirectly affect populations and communities of native species via the sharing of natural enemies, a process referred to as apparent competition (Holt [
A better understanding of the predictability of such ecological interactions between H. halys and A. bifasciatus can only be accomplished by increasing our knowledge on the reproductive biology, behavioural ecology, and dispersal of A. bifasciatus. The results of this study indicate that non-target effects cannot be ruled out, but expanding the laboratory non-target studies to semi-field and field conditions will help to better understand potential risks of inundative releases of this native parasitoid.
DB, JS, and TH conceived and designed research. JS and TH conducted experiments. JS analysed data. JS wrote the manuscript, and DB and TH edited it. All authors read and approved the manuscript.
The online version of this article (10.1007/s10340-018-0969-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
The authors are grateful to Serge Fischer (Agroscope Changins-Wädenswil, Switzerland) for providing the original A. bifasciatus colony. We would like to thank Warren Wong and Patrick Mrazek for technical assistance in the laboratory. We appreciate the taxonomic guidance offered by Lucian Fusu (University of Iasi, Romania). We would like to thank Hannes Baur (Natural History Museum Bern, Switzerland) for providing the technical equipment for parasitoid measurements. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie Grant Agreement No 641456. CABI is an international intergovernmental organization, and we gratefully acknowledge the core financial support from our member countries (and lead agencies) including the UK (Department for International Development), China (Chinese Ministry of Agriculture), Australia (Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research), Canada (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada), Netherlands (Directorate-General for International Cooperation), and Switzerland (Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation). See
The authors have declared that no conflict of interest exists.
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals (vertebrates) performed by any of the authors.
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PHOTO (COLOR): Supplementary material 1 (PDF 137 kb)
By Judith M. Stahl; Dirk Babendreier and Tim Haye