The aim of the study was to determine the antimicrobial resistance profile and the occurrence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase genes and to analyze the genetic diversity of Escherichia coli strains isolated from the environment of horse riding centers. The study was conducted using E. coli strains isolated from the air, manure, and horse nostril swabs in three horse riding centers differing in the system of horse keeping—stable (OJK Pegaz and KJK Szary) and free-range (SKH Nielepice). Resistance to antibiotics was determined using the disk-diffusion method, and the PCR technique was employed to detect the extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) genes, while the genetic diversity of strains was assessed by rep-PCR. A total of 200 strains were collected during the 2-year study, with the majority isolated from KJK Szary, while the smallest number was obtained from SKH Nielepice. The strains were mostly resistant to ampicillin, aztreonam, and ticarcillin. The tested strains were most frequently resistant to one or two antibiotics, with a maximum of ten antimicrobials at the same time. Two multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains were detected in OJK Pegaz while in KJK Szary there were two MDR and one extensively drug-resistant (XDR) strain. The ESBL mechanism was most frequently observed in OJK Pegaz (20.31% of strains) followed by KJK Szary (15.53% of strains) and SKH Nielepice (15.15% of strains). Among the ESBL-determining genes, only blaTEM and blaCTXM-9 were detected—blaTEM was mostly found in KJK Szary (53.40% of strains), while the second detected gene—blaCTXM-9—was most frequent in SKH Nielepice (6.06% of strains). The rep-PCR genotyping showed high variation among the analyzed strains, whereas its degree differed between the studied facilities, indicating that the type of horse keeping (stable vs. free-range) affects the genetic diversity of the E. coli strains. Having regard to the fact that the tested strains of E. coli were derived from non-hospitalized horses that were not treated pharmacologically, we can assume that the observed antimicrobial resistance may be of both—natural origin, i.e., not the result of the selection pressure, and acquired, the source of which could be people present in the horse riding facilities, the remaining horses which were not included in the study, and air, as well as water, fodder, and litter of the animals. Therefore, it can be concluded that the studied horses are the source of resistant E. coli and it is reasonable to continue monitoring the changes in antimicrobial resistance in those bacteria.
Antibiotics; Antimicrobial resistance; Escherichia coli; Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases, horses
Bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents is an increasing and globally occurring problem; therefore, monitoring this phenomenon and understanding its molecular basis is extremely important. Obtaining information about pathways of spreading of antimicrobial resistance-determining genes and their transmission between various components of the ecosystem will contribute to the development of new concepts to counteract this process (Angulo et al. [
There are reports in the world literature on the spread of drug resistance genes in E. coli isolated from animals, including horses (Sáenz et al. [
One of the most common mechanisms of resistance in E. coli is their ability to produce extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL). The presence of Salmonella enterica, E. coli, and Klebsiella pneumoniae beta-lactamase-producing strains has already been detected in feces of pigs, cattle, and horses (Wellington et al. [
The aim of this study was to assess the genetic diversity of E. coli strains isolated from the air, manure, and nostrils of horses from three horse riding centers that differ in the horse keeping system—stable and free-range (non-stable system). The antimicrobial resistance profile was determined, with particular emphasis on the occurrence of the ESBL mechanism. The information provided will help to determine, whether there are multidrug-resistant E. coli strains spread in the environment of the horse riding centers, which could pose a threat to public health.
The samples of air, manure, and nostril swabs were collected every 2 months over the period of 2 years (2015-2016), which gave 12 series of material collection. Horses for the study were selected on the basis of their owners’ declarations that they would not be sold during the study period, and that the animals were kept in good condition and were not continuously treated pharmacologically. In this study, E. coli were isolated from the air, manure, and nostrils of horses kept in three horse riding centers, two of which have stables and one is free-range (non-stable). The horse keeping system depends on their race, age, sex, and intended use as well as the possibilities of a given facility. The box system is the most popular model of horse keeping, and it does not require frequent supervision; while being easily accessible to the animals, it is also economically viable. On the other hand, it clearly limits the movement of animals and contact with other individuals. The box system is used in the case of sport horses, noble breeds, or especially valuable individuals, such as foals, stallions, and aggressive individuals. On the other hand, the non-stable system provides the horses with the possibility of unrestricted movement and contact with other individuals, most suited to the nature of the horse. The animals spend most of their time in pasture in large groups, returning to farm buildings in the case of heavy cold or when they are being used. The non-stable system is ideal for Hutsul ponies, rugged, resistant to adverse climatic conditions, and with strong heard instincts (Waran [
The study was conducted in three Lesser Poland (southern Poland) horse riding centers. The Horse Riding Center Pegaz in Kraków (OJK Pegaz) has one small stable, common for all horses, with seven closed and eight boxes opening to the outside. There are 13 horses in the facility, and the remaining 2 are horses owned by private people, not participating in the study. The horses in the center are recreational, and apart from private horses, there is no rotation. The air was collected in five points. Points 1 and 2 were located inside the closed stable, points 3 and 4 in the open box stalls, and point 5 in front of the stable, outdoors (control point). The Horse Riding Club Szary in Michałowice (KJK Szary) is a large and extremely modern center with 100 box stalls and with recreational and sport horses, and the facility also runs a guesthouse for horses, hence the large rotation of animals. The air samples were collected in 10 sites, points 1-9 within the stable and point 10 (control) located outdoors. The sampling sites in OJK Pegaz and KJK Szary were evenly distributed so that the air in the stable could be analyzed in a representative way. In both OJK Pegaz and KJK Szary, 13 horses were selected for the study, so the experiment was planned to collect biological material in the form of swabs from the same horse and at the same time to collect fresh manure from its box. The Hutsul Pony Stud Farm in Nielepice (SKH Nielepice) is the only one that runs the non-stable husbandry. Horses of the Hutsul breed stay in the open air all year round and use only shelters in wooden sheds without doors. The air samples in SKH Nielepice were collected in four points relevant for the operation of the stud (1—roof for riders, 2—saddle room, 3—roof for horses, 4—paddock). In SKH Nielepice, 22 horses were subjected to the analysis, so the experiment was planned to collect the biological material in the form of a swab from the same horse. Due to the non-stable horse keeping, fresh manure was collected from six points located under a roofed shelter where horses await their riders. In all three horse riding centers, manure was collected to 500-ml sterile containers and swabs from horse nostrils were taken by sterile swabs with a transport medium (BTL, Poland) and immediately transported to the laboratory to isolate E. coli.
Microorganisms were isolated differently depending on the source: manure—with the serial dilutions method; air—with collision method using MAS-100 air sampler (Merck, Switzerland) according to the manufacturer’s instructions (Operator’s Manual MAS-100™ Professional Microbial Air Monitoring System for the Microbiological Testing of Air [
The antimicrobial resistance of the collected E. coli strains was determined by the disk-diffusion method, recommended by the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility (EUCAST [
Bacterial genomic DNA was extracted from the cultures obtained in the course of the study and from the control E. coli strain ATCC 25922 using the Genomic Mini DNA extraction kit (A&A Biotechnology, Poland), following the manufacturer’s instructions. In order to determine the presence of ESBL-determining genes, PCR tests were conducted using specific primers (Table 1): blaCTXM3 (Costa et al. [
Molecular differentiation of E. coli strains was based on the rep-PCR conducted using BOXA1R primer (Versalovic et al. [
Statistica v. 12.5 (StatSoft) was used to conduct the chi-square test in order to verify the significance of differences in the resistance to the tested antimicrobial agents in E. coli strains isolated from three horse riding centers (OJK Pegaz, KJK Szary, SKH Nielepice).
The presence of clonal strains in the rep-PCR analysis was verified using FaBox (Villesen [
A total of 200 E. coli strains were collected in the 2-year study, including 64 from OJK Pegaz, 103 from KJK Szary, and 33 from SKH Nielepice (Table 2). The E. coli isolates from swabs and manure were the predominant ones, while airborne ones were the least numerous. Air is not a favorable environment for microbial multiplication and dwelling, but it favors movement of microorganisms (Wolny-Koładka et al. [
Frequency (%) of antimicrobial resistance in E. coli strains isolated from three horse riding centers
Antimicrobial, symbol (μg) Breakpoint values (mm) Strain origin n = 200 Mean OJK Pegaz n = 64 Mean KJK Szary n = 103 Mean SKH Nielepice n = 33 Mean OJK KJK SKH M A S M A S M A S Number of isolates 64 103 33 66.67 26 7 31 21.33 39 17 47 34.33 19 0 14 11 Share % of isolates in the total number of strains 32 51.5 16.5 - 40.63 10.93 48.44 - 37.87 16.5 45.63 - 57.58 0 42.42 - Amikacin (AK, 30) 18/15 (EUCAST 2017) 3.13 0 0 1.04 0 0 6.45 2.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (AMC, 30) 19 (EUCAST 2017) 1.56 1.94 9.09 4.2 0 14.29 0 4.76 0 0 4.26 1.42 0 0 21.43 7.14 Ampicillin (AMP, 10) 14 (EUCAST 2017) 14.06 2.91 24.24 13.74 7.69 14.29 19.35 13.78 2.56 5.88 2.13 3.52 5.26 0 50 18.42 Aztreonam (ATM, 30) 26/21 (EUCAST 2017) 9.38 15.53 6.06 10.32 11.54 28.57 3.23 14.45 7.69 23.53 19.15 16.79 0 0 14.29 4.76 Cefamandole (MA, 30) 18/14 (Barry et al. 1983) 1.56 3.88 0 1.82 0 14.29 0 4.76 2.56 5.88 4.26 4.23 0 0 0 0 Cefepime (FEP, 30) 27/21 (EUCAST 2017) 1.56 1.94 0 1.17 3.85 0 0 1.28 0 0 4.26 1.42 0 0 0 0 Cefotaxime (CTX, 30) 20/17 (EUCAST 2017) 0 0.97 0 0.32 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.13 0.71 0 0 0 0 Cefoxitin (FOX, 30) 19 (EUCAST 2017) 3.13 3.88 9.09 5.37 3.85 14.29 0 6.04 2.56 0 6.38 2.98 5.26 0 14.29 6.52 Ceftazidime (CAZ, 30) 22/19 (EUCAST 2017) 4.69 12.62 3.03 6.78 3.85 14.29 3.23 7.12 7.69 11.76 17.02 12.16 0 0 7.14 2.38 Cefalotin (KF, 30) 13 (Kronvall et al. 1984) 3.13 5.83 18.18 9.04 0 0 6.45 2.15 2.56 0 10.64 4.4 5.26 0 35.71 13.66 Cefazolin (KZ, 30) 23/19 (Turnidge 2011) 0 3.88 9.09 4.32 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.51 2.84 5.26 0 14.29 6.52 Ciprofloxacin (CIP, 5) 26/24 (EUCAST 2017) 0 0.97 0 0.32 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.13 0.71 0 0 0 0 Gentamicin (CN, 10) 17/14 (EUCAST 2017) 3.13 1.94 0 1.69 0 0 6.45 2.15 0 5.88 2.13 2.67 0 0 0 0 Netilmicin (NET, 30) 15/12 (EUCAST 2017) 0 1.94 3.03 1.66 0 0 0 0 2.56 0 2.13 1.56 5.26 0 0 1.75 Piperacillin (PRL, 100) 20/17 (EUCAST 2017) 3.13 3.88 0 2.34 0 14.29 3.23 5.84 5.13 5.88 2.13 4.38 0 0 0 0 Piperacillin/tazobactam (TZP, 110) 20/17 (EUCAST 2017) 0 1.94 0 0.65 0 0 0 0 2.56 0 2.13 1.56 0 0 0 0 Tetracycline (TE, 30) 15/11 (Sader et al. 2007) 14.06 4.85 0 6.31 11.54 14.29 16.13 13.98 2.56 5.88 6.38 4.94 0 0 0 0 Ticarcillin (TIC, 75) 23 (EUCAST 2017) 18.75 5.83 21.21 15.26 15.38 14.29 22.58 17.42 2.56 5.88 8.51 5.65 5.26 0 42.86 16.04 Tobramycin (TOB, 10) 17/14 (EUCAST 2017) 3.13 1.94 3.03 2.7 0 0 6.45 2.15 0 0 4.26 1.42 5.26 0 0 1.75 Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (SXT, 25) 14/11 (EUCAST 2017) 1.56 2.91 0 1.49 3.85 0 0 1.28 5.13 5.88 0 3.67 0 0 0 0 ESBL - 20.31 15.53 15.15 17 23.08 42.86 12.9 26.28 15.38 5.88 19.15 13.47 21.05 0 7.14 9.4 blaTEM - 46.88 53.4 30.3 43.53 50 71.43 38.71 53.38 43.59 76.47 53.19 57.75 31.58 0 28.57 20.05 blaCTXM-9 - 4.69 0.97 6.06 3.91 3.85 14.29 3.23 7.12 0 5.88 0 1.96 5.26 0 7.14 4.13
Values > 10 are bolded
M manure, A air, S swab
Disk-diffusion tests allowed to determine the antimicrobial resistance of the analyzed E. coli strains, and the detailed results are shown in Table 2. The bacteria were most frequently resistant to ampicillin and ticarcillin (respectively OJK Pegaz—14.06 and 18.75%, SKH Nielepice—24.24 and 21.21%), aztreonam (15.53%) and ceftazidime (12.62%) (KJK Szary), cefalotin (18.18%—SKH Nielepice), and tetracycline (14.06%—OJK Pegaz). In OJK Pegaz, the E. coli strains collected from all three environments (manure, air, and nostrils) showed increased resistance to tetracycline (respectively 11.54, 14.29, and 16.13%) and ticarcillin (15.38, 14.29, and 22.58%). All isolates were, however, susceptible to cefotaxime, cefazolin, ciprofloxacin, netilmicin, and piperacillin/tazobactam. The percentage share of strains resistant to at least one or more tested antimicrobial agents in different environments was as follows: 50% manure, 42.86% air, and 45.16% swabs. In KJK Szary, a high percentage of resistance to aztreonam and ceftazidime was found in bacteria isolated from air (respectively 23.53 and 11.76%) and swabs (19.15 and 17.02%), and also to cefalotin in strains isolated from swabs (10.64%). The percentage share of strains resistant to at least one or more tested antimicrobial agents in different environments was as follows: 28% manure, 41.18% air, and 38.30% swabs. In SKH Nielepice, no strains of E. coli were isolated from the air and the most probable reason for this was the non-stable horse keeping system in this facility. On the other hand, there was a very high percentage of strains isolated from swabs that were resistant to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (21.43%), ampicillin (50%), cefalotin (35.71%), and ticarcillin (42.86%) and an increased level of resistance was observed in the case of aztreonam (14.29%), cefoxitin (14.29%), and cefazolin (14.29%). The percentage of strains resistant to at least one or more tested antimicrobial agents in different environments was as follows: 15.79% manure and 78.57% swabs. Maddox et al. ([
The ability to produce extended spectrum beta-lactamases was found in 34 isolates (13 OJK Pegaz, 16 KJK Szary, and 5 SKH Nielepice), whereas given the number of strains isolated from each horse riding center, it should be noted that they were most frequent in OJK Pegaz (20.31%). In OJK Pegaz, the ESBL-producing E. coli strains were most frequently isolated from the air (42.86%), in KJK Szary from swabs (19.15%), and in SKH Nielepice from manure (21.05%) (Table 2). Ahmed et al. ([
The tested E. coli strains were mostly resistant to one or two antibiotics. Two MDR strains were found in OJK Pegaz (air and swab), and in KJK Szary, there were also two MDR strains (air and swab) and one XDR strain (swab) (Table 3). The MDR (multidrug-resistant) strains are resistant to at least three classes of antibiotics (Maddox et al. [
Number of E. coli isolates with MDR and XDR phenotype and resistant to different numbers of antibiotics
OJK Pegaz n = 64 KJK Szary n = 103 SKH Nielepice n = 33 Total n = 200 Mean MDR 2 2 0 4 1.33 XDR 0 1 0 1 0.33 10 0 1 0 1 0.33 9 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 1 0 1 0.33 7 0 0 1 1 0.33 6 0 0 0 0 0 5 1 2 1 4 1.33 4 4 1 1 6 2 3 0 4 1 5 1.67 2 9 12 6 27 9 1 16 15 4 35 11.67 0 34 67 19 120 40
Among the extended-spectrum beta-lactamase genes, only blaTEM and blaCTXM-9 were found in the analyzed E. coli strains, with no blaCTXM-3, blaOXA, and blaSHV (Table 2, Fig. 1). In addition, there were significant differences in the incidence of both genes. The blaTEM gene clearly dominated in all three horse riding centers, being most frequent in KJK Szary (53.4%). The blaCTXM-9 gene in all cases occurred simultaneously with blaTEM, never individually. Ahmed et al. ([
The χ
The results of AMOVA analysis for 183 isolates grouped into three populations (horse riding centers)
Source of variation Sum of squares Variance components Percentage of variation Among populations 15.876 0.10230 6.41 Within populations 267.260 1.49307 93.59 Total 283.137 1.59537 100 Fixation index—Fst 0.06412
Characteristics of most frequenta haplotypes within strains isolated from the analyzed horse riding centers
Haplotype No. of isolates Detected in (environment) Detected in (facility) A (n = 24) M (n = 75) S (n = 83) N (n = 30) P (n = 58) S (n = 94) Ec_1 27 3 15 9 5 9 13 Ec_2 17 6 4 7 1 2 14 Ec_3 14 1 6 7 0 11 3 Ec_4 10 2 4 4 3 5 2 Ec_5 8 0 5 3 3 4 1 Ec_6 8 0 5 3 2 4 2 Ec_7 7 0 6 1 6 0 1 Ec_8 7 0 3 4 0 7 0 Ec_9 6 0 2 4 0 4 2 Ec_10 5 0 2 3 1 0 4 Ec_11 4 3 0 1 1 3 0 Ec_12 4 0 0 4 2 2 0 Ec_13 3 1 1 1 0 0 3 Ec_14 3 0 2 1 1 0 2 Ec_15 3 0 2 1 0 0 3 Ec_16 3 2 0 1 1 2 0
The conducted study allowed for the isolation, identification, and assessment of antimicrobial resistance profile of 200 E. coli strains from the environment of three horse riding centers, differing in the type of horse keeping. Among the collected strains, many were resistant to the tested antibiotics, including the presence of bacteria presenting the MDR and XDR phenotypes. It indicates that the studied horses are a source of antimicrobial-resistant E. coli. Analysis of genetic diversity demonstrated a high variation among the analyzed strains, whereas its degree differed between the studied facilities, indicating that the type of horse keeping (stable vs. free-range) affects the genetic diversity of the commensal microflora, represented by the species of E. coli. The ability to produce extended-spectrum beta-lactamases has been demonstrated in the disk-diffusion test, as well as by detecting the ESBL-encoding genes, and the blaTEM gene was the most abundant among the ESBL-determining genes. At the same time, it should be remembered that detection of the ESBL mechanism by phenotypic methods may produce false negative results. Therefore, given the discrepancies between the results of phenotypic and molecular tests, it is reasonable to conduct further studies aimed at identifying the risk factors for the spread of drug resistance among horses. This is particularly important because horses are among the components of zoonotic transmission of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and can be both recipients and the reservoir of the resistance genes, which poses a major threat to public health.
The authors would like to sincerely thank Mr. Marian Mikołajewicz (The Hutsul Pony Stud Farm in Nielepice), Mr. Bogdan German (The Horse Riding Center Pegaz in Kraków), and Mrs. Anna Szary-Ziębicka (The Horse Riding Club Szary in Michałowice) for allowing this research and valuable help during the study. This study was funded by the statutory measures of the Department of Microbiology, University of Agriculture in Cracow, Poland.
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PHOTO (COLOR)
PHOTO (COLOR)
By Katarzyna Wolny-Koładka and Anna Lenart-Boroń