Featured Application: Several unusual small objects from the Villa del Foro archaeological excavation were characterized and interpreted either as gaming pieces or functional materials. An interesting assemblage of ancient ceramic materials connected or potentially connected with gaming activities has been characterized from the archaeometric point of view. The materials (washer-like pieces, small spheres, and cubic dice, with and without inscriptions) were found in the Villa del Foro excavation (Alessandria, Italy). They are related to the early Ligurian population of the site and their frequent contacts with Etruscan both in Etruria and in the Po Valley, in a period spanning the early VI century BC till the first half of the V century BC. Starting from the materials evidence, hypotheses are proposed concerning their possible use and cultural meaning. The studied cubic dice are discussed in the wider context of the pre-Roman diffusion of these objects.
Keywords: dice; gaming pieces; Ligurian; Etruscan; clay spheres
There is substantial knowledge on ancient games, especially on the use of board games in the ancient cultures of the Middle East (see for example: [[
The recent find of an unusual assemblage of small objects during the archaeological excavation at Villa del Foro (Alessandria, Italy) [[
The analyzed objects are listed in Table 1. They were found during the archaeological excavation in different locations of the site: about one-third are sporadic finds or were recovered on the surface, whereas two-thirds belong to specific stratigraphic units. The archaeological information related to the exact location and stratigraphy of the objects is discussed in detail in Paltineri [[
Based on the ceramic types associated with the finds the proposed date for the uninscribed dice is VI century BC; a washer-like piece and another uninscribed dice are dated to the end of the VI-beginning of the V century BC, and another washer-like piece is dated to the first half of the V century BC. However, the occurrence and distribution of the objects indicate that they were in use during the whole life span of the site, that is between the early VI century BC till the first half of the V century BC [[
All samples were initially weighed and dimensionally measured with a caliper. The results are reported in Table 1. In the case of irregular shapes, the minimum and maximum dimensions are listed.
Two coeval dice reported from the nearby site of Castello di Annone [[
Based on macroscopic observations, the major differences between objects are (
All samples were further characterized by X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) and Raman spectroscopy, in order to control the composition of the ceramics, the degree of firing, and the composition and application technique of the surface pigments.
The XRPD measurements were made on minute quantities of material using a PANalytical X'Pert Pro goniometer operated in θ-θ Bragg–Brentano geometry and equipped with a Pixcel RTMS detector. Measuring conditions were: Cobalt Kα radiation, 40 kV and 40 mA power, angular range 3–85° 2θ, virtual steps of 0.02° 2θ. Because of the very small amount of material extracted from the objects, the signal was optimized by using a rotating zero-background sample holder. The diffraction spectra were analyzed using the X'Pert HighScore Plus software 3.0 of PANalytical.
Micro-Raman analyses were performed with a DXR Thermo Scientific instrument, equipped with a 532 nm laser and a 50× LWD (Long Working Distance) objective. The working condition selected for the analyses is acquisition time 3 s, 32 scans, 5 mW and a 25 µm pinhole. The spectra were processed with the Omnic 9 software (Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) and compared with reference spectra recovered from the online RRUFF database (
Because of the puzzling presence of several cubic dice with no writing marks or numbers, Raman chemical mapping and multispectral optical imaging were also used to image the unmarked surfaces in the attempt to check for eventual phantoms indicating residues of disappeared, degraded, or canceled signs. Surprisingly, no evidence whatsoever was found of labile or disappeared inscriptions, therefore supporting the pristine unmarked state of several of the cubic dice.
For each find, the mean dimensions (i.e., mean side for cubes and mean diameter for spheres and circles, Table 1) were calculated for statistical analysis and comparison purposes. The details of the statistical distributions of dimensions and shapes for each typology of material are reported and discussed by Angelini et al. [[
Here we only report the observation that independent of the size and shape of the object, the approximate density obtained by the calculated weight/volume ratio is constant, and indicates similar raw materials and manufacturing techniques. Moreover, the density of the ceramic used for the production of the dice is similar to the one of bone dice. This characteristic may be relevant in the throwing of the dice.
In each class of objects, or considering the whole set of finds, no occurrence of specific values of weight, and no system of multiple or submultiple values was observed. It is, therefore, possible to exclude the use of these objects as weights. This deduction is supported also by the absence of hooks, holes, or lateral grooves that are generally present in Bronze Age and Iron Age weights ([[
As expected from the visual observations and the preliminary density measurements, the main composing material of the ceramic bodies is a common mixture of clay and sand, fired at relatively low temperatures (600–800 °C). The range of firing temperature is deducted from the absence in the XRD analyses of clay minerals that decompose generally at about 600 °C or below, and the presence of micas that commonly start dehydroxylation transformations at temperatures of about 900 °C. Apart from the VF.SP251 washer disc that was manufactured by filing and abrading a recycled ceramic fragment of common fired pottery, all other objects were roughly put into shape by hand modeling the clay paste before firing. Most of the decorating nail marks visible on the washer-like discs (Figure 3) were also made before firing.
Indeed the systematic use of ceramics for such small pieces and for dice, in particular, is rather unusual since the great part of the investigated dice of Etruscan [[
On the other hand, the use of fired ceramics for small spheres is a common occurrence in Northern and Central Italy since the Middle Bronze Age [[
Concerning the colored surfaces, it should be noted that none of the washer-like discs has evidence of pigments in the surface, whereas one small sphere (VF.RS111, Figure 1b) and two dice have a visible red coating. The color is due to a hematite-rich surface layer in all cases, as unambiguously determined by XRPD and especially by the micro-Raman spectroscopy performed on a small quantity of the painted layers scrubbed from the surface of a die and a sphere (Figure 4). The other mineral phases identified in the red layer by XRD (mainly quartz, plagioclase and mica) may belong to either the ceramic body or the coloring raw material if an ochre-rich material was used. The red coating was, thus, made using crushed hematite or red ochre. In our opinion, the last hypothesis is more probable due to the availability, diffusion and large use of red ochre pigments.
One dice (VF91.1531.E38) has a visible white coating layer on the surface, which is enriched in calcite, as shown by XRPD and Raman analyses (Figure 5).
In both the red and white cases the pigmenting mineral (ochre and calcite, respectively) form uniform patinas, that appear under the microscope as a compact layer, well connected to the ceramic body and that do not show loss of powder. It was not allowed to cut a section of the colored objects, but the OM study and the absence of organic or inorganic binders (especially in the red finds) suggest that the pigments were applied to the surface on purpose, likely before firing. The observation supports the fact that the dice are completely finished, and left unmarked intentionally.
A couple of dice show irregular black areas that were shown by Raman spectroscopy to be enriched in carbon black, possibly as the result of inappropriate firing during manufacturing in reducing conditions or accidental combustion at some point in the life of the object.
The occurrence of several types of small ceramics materials at Villa del Foro stimulates a number of considerations concerning their use. It is not clear whether the washer-like discs, the spheres and the dice had common functions, although their archaeological association and chronological distribution indicates that they all were in use during the lifetime of the settlement, which is considered to be an Iron Age rich trade site ("emporium") along the river Tànaro [[
Several proposals have been put forward to interpret the use of ceramic washers and balls, such as cultural function, seal for containers of different types, loom weights, pieces for board games or kids' toys, tokens for computation support for pottery. A detailed discussion of the evidence in favor or against each one of the hypothetical functions can be followed in Paltineri [[
On the other hand, there is little doubt that the dice with incised numbers were used for games. The dice having stick, parallelepiped, or cubic form were in use in the Indus Valley, Mesopotamia, and Egypt at least from the III millennium BC [[
There are two dice with numbers at Villa del Foro: (
- (a) disregarding the rotation of the dice and the relative disposition of the points in the side of the cube, there are only 15 possible coupled configurations of numbers on opposite faces [[
13 ], [15 ], [17 ], [25 ]]; - (b) the two most frequent configurations in ancient dice are the 1–6 2–5 3–4 configuration ("sum 7 rule") that is virtually the universal configuration found in modern dice, and the 1–2 3–4 5–6 configuration ("difference 1 rule"). It turns out that none of the two numerical distributions are naturally inserted on the face of the cube without cultural imprinting [[
24 ]]. This is strong proof of the social and cultural transmission values of dice games [[2 ]]; - (c) in ancient Italy, the dice were introduced by Etruscans, the early dice had a parallelepiped shape, then evolved into the cubic one. The early dice (VII-VI century BC) on both sides of the Apennines (i.e., Etruria, South of the Apennines, and Etruscan Po Valley) were mostly of parallelepiped shape and have a neat prevalence of the "difference 1" configuration", then largely shifting to the prevalent cubic form with the "sum 7" configuration in the V century BC. In Bologna (Felsina), the capital of Etruria in the Po Valley, the old shape and numerical configuration seems to maintain prevalence throughout the V century BC. Starting from the IV century BC the latter configuration is virtually the only one present and it continued to be prevalent in the Roman world [[
9 ], [11 ], [13 ]]. Because of the conservative character of dice in Etruscan Bologna, the bone dice of Villa del Foro (SP909, Figure 6) seem to testify to contact with Etruscans from the Tyrrenian area, rather than the Po Valley. - (d) in all periods, there is a small fraction of dice having a numerical configuration different from the two prevalent ones. In most cases, we have a doubling of a number and a missing one (for example 1-1 3-4 5-6), and sometimes we observe the doubling of three numbers and the omission of the remaining ones (for example 1-1 5-5 6-6 or 2-2 3-3 4-4). Such dice were sometimes interpreted as manufacturing mistakes or intentional variations for cheating, though the most probable use is in connection with board games [[
11 ]]. Interestingly, many of these anomalously numbered dice were found in association with board pieces, such as glass checkers [[11 ], [16 ], [27 ]].
Graph: Figure 6 The dice SP909 from Villa del Foro, with numbers 1–6 incised in the "7 rule " configuration. Scale bar: 4 mm.
Graph: Figure 7 The dice VF14.SP386D 9 from Villa del Foro, with numbers 1–6 incised in the 1-6 2-4 3-5 configuration. Scale bar: 4 mm.
Within this context, the ceramic dice from Villa del Foro (VF14.SP386D, Figure 7) has both a numerical configuration (1–6 2–4 3–5) and the nature of the material (ceramics) that has never been observed in Etruscan dice [[
The very unusual dice found in Castello d'Annone, bearing Etruscan letters and randomly distributed dots (Figure 2), is a unicum that may be somehow compared to the well-known Etruscan dice with numbers in letters from Toscanella, discussed by various authors and interpreted as being used for ritual or divinatory purposes [[
Overall, the materials analysis of the small ceramic objects excavated from the Villa del Foro archaeological site confirms their exceptional importance both for the large quantity of recovered finds and for the reconstruction of the social and cultural context of this "emporium". Based on the measured data and the archaeological information, it is proposed that the ceramic pieces, in the form of washers, spheres, and uninscribed cubes, were used as counters in board games. The use of these objects as tokens for computation cannot be excluded, although in our opinion it is considered less probable for several reasons. At first, the recovery of two dice with numbers from 1–6 testify to the presence of ludic activities in the site. Moreover, in the Etruscan world game counters were widespread and often found in association with dice, as discussed below. The connection of Villa del Foro with the Etruscan culture is proved by different finds recovered in the site [[
No remains of the board were found in Villa del Foro or in other sites in Northern Italy or in the Etruscan territories; so it is impossible to know what kind of game was played. On the other hand, the use of board games is well proven by the presence of numerous counters made with different colors and materials (often associated with dice), found in Etruscan tombs [[
Graph: Figure 1 Representative shapes of the investigated objects from Villa del Foro: (a) washer-like disc, with indented borders (VF91.157/E1); (b) small ceramic sphere with a red colored surface (VFRS111); (c) cubic dice with no inscriptions and red-pigmented surface (VF14.SP384D); (d) cubic dice with numbers or other signs (VF90.1549/E32). The scale bars are (a,b) 2 mm, and (c,d) 4 mm.
Graph: Figure 2 The dice CDA95-C35-F2 from Castello di Annone with signs, dots and two Etruscan numbers in letters [[
Graph: Figure 3 (a) nail marks visible on the flat surface of the VF-pU210-E10 washer disc; (b,c) vertical nail incisions made on the lateral edge of the VF-pd571-E41 washer disc. The scale bars are (a,b) 2 mm, and (c) 1 mm.
Graph: Figure 4 (a) XRPD diffractogram measured on the red coating of dice VF14.SP384D; (b) Raman spectroscopic signal of one red grain (blue spectrum) and one red-orange grain (red spectrum) present in the red coating of the same dice, compared with the spectra of two reference hematite (green and dark blue) and two red ochre samples (pink and cyan).
Graph: Figure 5 (a) XRPD diffractogram measured on the white coating of dice VF91.1531.E38; (b) Raman spectroscopic signal of the white coating of the same dice (red), compared with the spectra of reference calcite (green and blue).
Graph: applsci-12-02130-g005b.tif
Table 1 List of investigated materials from Villa del Foro (Alessandria, Italy).
Id. Catalog Location Material Description Dimensions (cm) Weight (g) 1 VF86.1000.12 area A, S5E10 g7, US 1000 fired ceramics Irregular clay disc, with rough reeded edge ø max 2.7; ø min 2.4; h. 0.8 5.50 2 VF86.1210.1076 area B, US 1210 fired ceramics Roughly modeled clay disc, irregular circle shape, flat section ø max 2.9; ø min 2.8; h. 0.6 6.52 3 VF86.1210.917 area B, S6E10, US 1210 fired ceramics Rough clay incomplete semi-circle, flat section, nail marks on one surface ø max 5.8; ø min 3.7; h. 1.1 23.46 4 VF88.1501.E39 area E, US 1501 fired ceramics Irregular clay disc, flat asymmetric section ø max 2.9; ø min 2.5; h. 0.9 6.99 5 VF91.1571.E41 area E, US 1571 fired ceramics Flat circular clay disc, with one slighly concave surface, vertical nail marks on the edge ø max 2; ø min 1.9; h. 1 19.50 6 VF.SP244 stray find fired ceramics Irregular flat clay disc ø max 2.9; ø min 2.8; h. 0.7 5.68 7 VF.SP251 stray find fired ceramics Irregular clay oval disc, carved out of a pot fragment ø max 6.4; ø min 5.5; h. 1 49.90 8 VF.SP187 stray find fired ceramics Roughly modelled fragmented clay emi-sphere ø max 1.8; ø min 1.6; h. 1.4 3.82 9 VF90.1514.E40 area E, US 1514, [US 1530] fired ceramics Irregular clay circular disc with eleven engraved lines on a side ø max 5.6; ø min 5.4; h. 0.7 5.50 10 VF89.1210-VIII.B24 area B, US 1210 VIII tg. fired ceramics Irregular clay sphere ø max 1.9; ø min 1.7 (ø mean 1.80) 6.02 11 VF90.1549.E33 area E, US 1549 [US 1531] fired ceramics Irregular clay sphere ø max 1.4; ø min 1.3 (ø mean 1.35) 2.98 12 VF.RS111 area C, surface find fired ceramics Irregular clay sphere, surface pigmented in red ø max 1.4; ø min 1.4 (ø mean 1.40) 2.81 13 VF.SP247 part. 199 fired ceramics Irregular clay sphere ø max 1.9; ø min 1.7 (ø mean 1.80) 4.86 14 VF14.SP385D stray find fired ceramics Irregular clay sphere ø max 1.4; ø min 1.2 (ø mean 1.30) 1.94 15 VF88.1210-X.B22 area B, US 1210 X tg. fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, rounded edges 1.19; 1.15; 1.14 (side mean 1.16) 1.84 16 VF88.1210-II.B23 area B, US 1210 II tg. fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, rounded edges 1.36; 1.33; 1.32 (side mean 1.33) 2.06 17 VF87.1210-III.267 area B, US 1210 III tg. fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, rounded edges 1.37; 1.33; 1.24 (side mean 1.31) 3.69 18 VF87.1210-V.49 area B, US 1210 V tg. fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, rounded edges 1.63; 1.56; 1.54 (side mean 1.57) 6.34 19 VF87.1210-V.B3 area B, US 1210 V tg. fired ceramics Fragmented irregular clay cube, rounded edges 1.28; 1.21; 1.05 (side mean 1.18) 2.01 20 VF07.2122.1D area M, US 2122 [2080] fired ceramics Irregular clay cube 0.99; 0.98; 0.96 (side mean 0.97) 1.53 21 VF90.1000.E36 area E, US 1000 fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, rounded edges 1.30; 1.31; 1.42 (side mean 1.34) 3.05 22 VF88.1505.E37 area E, US 1505 fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, rounded edges, blackened surface 1.61; 1.59; 1.58 (side mean 1.59) 6.94 23 VF90.1549.E34 area E, US 1549 [US 1531] fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, rounded edges 1.46; 1.44; 1.43 (side mean 1.44) 4.53 24 VF91.1531.E38 area E [US 1531] fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, rounded edges, surface pigmented in white 1.84; 1.82; 1.80 (side mean 1.82) 8.60 25 VF90.1649.E35 area E, US 1649 [US 1531] fired ceramics Irregular clay parallelepiped, concave surfaces 1.26; 1.23; 0.87 (side mean 1.12) 1.56 26 VF.RS236 surface find N11W1 fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, rounded edges, surfaces pigmented in red 1.65; 1.60; 1.41 (side mean 1.55) 5.17 27 VF.RS237 surface find N11W9 fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, rounded edges 1.60; 1.55; 1.43 (side mean 1.52) 5.79 28 VF.SP237 stray find fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, rounded edges 1.49; 1.48; 1.42 (side mean 1.46) 3.91 29 VF.SP285bis stray find fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, concave surfaces 1.38; 1.33; 1.24 (side mean 1.31) 3.16 30 VF14.SP284D stray find fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, rounded edges, surfaces pigmented in red 1.59; 1.54; 1.52 (side mean 1.55) 5.20 31 CDA95-C45-F06 Castello di Annone cum. 45 fired ceramics Irregular clay cube 1.60; 1.51; 1.48 (side mean 1.53) 5.38 32 VF90.1549.E32 area E, US 1549 [US 1531] fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, rounded edges, incised with aligned series of dot impressions 1.92; 1.70; 1.67 (side mean 1.76) 9.06 33 VF14.SP386D stray find fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, numbers on the faces marked with small dot impressions 1.10; 1.09; 1.07 (side mean 1.08) 2.15 34 SP909 stray find bone Regular cubic dice, numbers on the faces marked with centered circles 1.16; 1.28; 1.28 (side mean 1.24) 3.62 35 CDA95-C35-F2 Castello di Annone cum. 35 fired ceramics Irregular clay cube, two sides marked with Etruscan letters, the other four sides marked with dots and lines 1.41; 1.39; 1.37 (side mean 1.39) 3.94
Conceptualization, I.A., C.B., M.V. and G.A.; methodology, I.A., C.B.; formal analysis, I.A., C.B.; investigation, I.A., C.B.; resources, I.A., G.A.; data curation, I.A.; writing—original draft preparation, G.A.; writing—review and editing, G.A., I.A., C.B., M.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
This research received no external funding.
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The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Rita Deiana (Università di Padova) is acknowledged for help in the measurement with multispectral images. We thank the four anonymous referees who improved the quality of the paper.
By Ivana Angelini; Cinzia Bettineschi; Marica Venturino and Gilberto Artioli
Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author