Form and meaning: Chinese adjectives and comparative constructions.

本論文以漢語形容詞為研究對象，在生成語法的框架下，結合喬姆斯基 (1995) 最簡方案中的特徵理論，研究漢語形容詞的詞類地位、其定語和謂語用法、其短語結構，以及比較句的結構和生成過程。

論文主要由兩部分組成。第一部分（第二章-第五章）首先評析了Baker (2003) 提出的以結構為依據劃分詞類的合理性，論證了漢語形容詞是一個獨立的詞類，在做定語和謂語時結構上有別於動詞，但在短語結構上和名詞、動詞相似。其次，我們採用den Dikken, Gu and Guo (2010) 的分析，提出形容詞具有不可釋義的[比較]特徵，解釋了形容詞在不同語境下的釋義。具有匹配特徵的“程度“中心語投射出程度短語DegP，為核查不可釋義的[比較]特徵提供核查域。最後，我們提出等級和非等級形容詞的差別並非來源於詞庫，而是源於“等級“中心語的投射GrdP。等級中心語含“等級性“，其投射區分等級和非等級形容詞，正如Borer (2005a) 提出的量詞中心語所含的“分割性“投射量詞短語區分可數和不可數名詞。因此，形容詞嵌套在兩層功能範疇裏：[[subscriptDegP] Deg [[subscriptGrdP] Grd [A]]]。

論文第二部分(第六章 第七章) 以比較句的結構和生成過程為研究對象，提出比較句中的兩個比較項為名詞性短語，和等級形容詞構成謂語關係，證實了漢語的比較句為“個體“比較 (Kennedy 2009)。在den Dikken, Gu and Guo (2010) 對漢語形容詞做謂語的分析的基礎上，我們進一步提出比較句中形容詞的“比較“釋義來自於“比較“運算元，程度中心語表達一個三維關係，引發一個程度短語嵌套結構：程度中心語首先和形容詞結合，其次和差異短語結合，最後和比較標準短語結合。程度中心語在比較句中有兩個語音實現：“出“ 和“一樣“，分別生成差比句和等比句。在沒有“比較運算元的情況下，程度中心語語音實現為"很"，生成謂語句，從而統一解釋了由三個中心語的投射生成的差比句、等比句以及一般謂語句。此外，程度中心語的三個語音實現將形容詞的釋義劃分為“比較“ 和“肯定“兩個語義區，進一步統一解釋了程度修飾語的分類及分佈。

The area of study in this thesis is the adjectival domain in Chinese. Working within the generative paradigm and incorporating the feature theory in the minimalist program (Chomsky 1995) into the study, this thesis addresses the following issues of adjectives: the categorial status, the attributive and predicative uses, the phrase structure, and the internal structure and derivation of comparative constructions.

The thesis mainly consists of two parts. In the first part (Chapter 2-Chapter 5), a structure based criterion for lexical categorization proposed by Baker (2003) is justified and adopted. Chinese adjectives are argued to form an independent category, different structurally from verbs in the attributive and predicative uses but parallel to nouns and verbs in the phrase structure. Following den Dikken, Gu and Guo (2010), a formal uninterpretable feature [CPR] (for 'comparative') associated with adjectives is motivated to capture the interpretational differences of adjectives in different contexts, and the Deg head with a matching feature projects DegP to provide the feature checking domain for the structure to converge. Adopting Borer's (2005a) theory of lexical decomposition, it is argued that nongradable and gradable adjectives are distinguished in the structure. A functional head Grd (for 'gradability') is posited to merge with the adjective phrase projecting GrdP to express the gradability of adjectives in a similar way as the projection of ClP expressing 'divisibility' of nouns. Adjectives are thus proposed to be embedded into two layers of the functional projections of GrdP and DegP: [[subscriptDegP] Deg [[subscriptGrdP] Grd [A]]].

The second part (Chapter 6-Chapter 7) is concerned with the internal structure and derivation of comparative constructions. It is argued that the compared elements are nominals of which the gradable adjectives predicate and Chinese comparatives are parameterized into individual comparison in the sense of Kennedy (2009). Proceeding along the line of den Dikken, Gu and Guo (2010), it is further argued that the comparative operator COMP adjoined to DegP is responsible for the comparative semantics of adjectives in comparative constructions and it has repercussions for the choice of the Deg head. In its presence, the Deg head expresses a triadic relation, provoking a DegP shell structure: the Deg head combines with the adjective first, then with a differential phrase and finally with a standard phrase. Two instantiations of the Deg head are proposed: CHU ('exceed') and yiyang ('same'), the former giving rise to comparatives of superiority and the latter to comparatives of equality. In its absence, the Deg head is instantiated by a semantically bleached degree adverb hen, yielding the positive reading of the adjectives and positive constructions. As a result, the three instantiations of the Deg head unify comparative constructions as well as positive constructions into one structure. Meanwhile, the three instantiations of the Deg head split the interpretations of adjectives into two semantic zones: a positive zone and a comparative zone, which have further implications on the classification and distributions of degree adverbs.

Detailed summary in vernacular field only.

Guo, Jie.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2012.

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 259-277).

Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.

also in Chinese.

p.i

論文摘要 --- p.iii

Acknowledgements --- p.v

Table of Contents --- p.ix

List of Abbreviations --- p.xii

Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1

Chapter 1.1 --- Setting the scene --- p.1

Chapter 1.2 --- Research questions and the theoretical framework --- p.6

Chapter 1.3 --- Organization of the thesis --- p.10

Chapter Chapter 2 --- Adjectives--A Universal Lexical Category --- p.13

Chapter 2.1 --- Adjectives as a subcategory of nouns and verbs --- p.13

Chapter 2.2 --- Adjectives as a separate lexical category --- p.19

Chapter 2.2.1 --- Concept and function based categorization of lexical categories --- p.19

Chapter 2.2.2 --- Feature based categorization of lexical categories --- p.23

Chapter 2.2.3 --- Structure based categorization of lexical categories --- p.24

Chapter 2.2.3.1 --- Verbs --- p.26

Chapter 2.2.3.2 --- Nouns --- p.28

Chapter 2.2.3.3 --- Adjectives --- p.30

Chapter 2.3 --- Evaluations of the categoriality of adjectives --- p.35

Chapter 2.4 --- Summary --- p.45

Chapter Chapter 3 --- Categorial Status of Chinese Adjectives --- p.47

Chapter 3.1 --- A subcategory of verbs --- p.47

Chapter 3.2 --- Separating adjectives from verbs --- p.49

Chapter 3.3 --- Adjective attribution in Chinese --- p.56

Chapter 3.4 --- Summary --- p.76

Chapter Chapter 4 --- Adjective Predication in Chinese --- p.78

Chapter 4.1 --- Facts about adjective predicates in Chinese --- p.79

Chapter 4.2 --- Previous analyses --- p.83

Chapter 4.2.1 --- A type-shifter analysis --- p.83

Chapter 4.2.2 --- Tense anchoring analyses --- p.84

Chapter 4.2.3 --- An operator licensing analysis --- p.91

Chapter 4.3 --- Feature analysis --- p.94

Chapter 4.3.1 --- Motivating features of gradable adjectives --- p.94

Chapter 4.3.2 --- Licensing the null Deg --- p.101

Chapter 4.4 --- Why operators matter --- p.106

Chapter 4.5 --- Summary --- p.110

Chapter Chapter 5 --- Degree Expressions and the Projection of Adjectives --- p.112

Chapter 5.1 --- Degree expressions: Modifiers, or heads, or both? --- p.114

Chapter 5.1.1 --- From modifiers to heads --- p.114

Chapter 5.1.2 --- Challenges to the unifying analysis of the degree expressions --- p.118

Chapter 5.1.3 --- Distributions of the degree expressions --- p.122

Chapter 5.2 --- Semantics of gradable adjectives --- p.127

Chapter 5.2.1 --- A relational analysis of gradable adjectives --- p.127

Chapter 5.2.2 --- A measure function analysis of gradable adjectives --- p.131

Chapter 5.2.3 --- Interpretation of the bare adjectives --- p.133

Chapter 5.3 --- Projecting the adjectives --- p.136

Chapter 5.3.1 --- Gradable-nongradable distinction of adjectives --- p.136

Chapter 5.3.2 --- Count-mass distinction of nouns --- p.139

Chapter 5.3.3 --- Functional projections of adjectives --- p.141

Chapter 5.4 --- Summary --- p.147

Chapter Chapter 6 --- The Status of the Compared Elements in Chinese Comparatives --- p.148

Chapter 6.1 --- The compared elements in comparatives --- p.152

Chapter 6.1.1 --- A complex structure of the compared elements --- p.152

Chapter 6.1.2 --- A simplex structure of the compared elements --- p.160

Chapter 6.2 --- The compared elements as nominals --- p.169

Chapter 6.3 --- Implications --- p.182

Chapter 6.3.1 --- Puzzles about Chinese comparatives resolved --- p.183

Chapter 6.3.2 --- Parameterized individual comparison of Chinese comparatives --- p.186

Chapter 6.3.2.1 --- Implicit vs. explicit comparison --- p.186

Chapter 6.3.2.2 --- Individual vs. degree comparison --- p.189

Chapter 6.4 --- Summary --- p.192

Chapter Chapter 7 --- The Internal Structure and Derivation of Chinese Comparatives --- p.193

Chapter 7.1 --- The Internal structure of Chinese comparatives --- p.194

Chapter 7.1.1 --- Bi as a functional head --- p.195

Chapter 7.1.2 --- Bi as a light verb --- p.207

Chapter 7.1.3 --- Bi as a preposition --- p.217

Chapter 7.1.4 --- Transitive comparatives --- p.222

Chapter 7.1.5 --- An interim summary --- p.225

Chapter 7.2 --- A new analysis --- p.226

Chapter 7.2.1 --- COMP operator, Deg head and DegP --- p.227

Chapter 7.2.2 --- The derivation of Chinese comparatives --- p.236

Chapter 7.3 --- Consequences --- p.241

Chapter 7.3.1 --- Problems solved --- p.241

Chapter 7.3.2 --- Distributions of the degree expressions revisited --- p.243

Chapter 7.3.2.1 --- Classifications of the degree expressions --- p.243

Chapter 7.3.2.2 --- A unifying analysis of the degree expressions --- p.248

Chapter 7.4 --- Summary --- p.254

Chapter Chapter 8 --- Conclusion --- p.255

References --- p.259