We examined the association between physical activity (PA), body mass index (BMI) and novel measures of subclinical cardiovascular disease (CVD) in 15 children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (mean age 7 ± 2 years, 2 girls). PA was objectively assessed using accelerometry as time spent in moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Arterial stiffness was measured via aortic pulse wave velocity (PWV) and taken as a marker of subclinical CVD risk. MVPA was inversely associated with aortic PWV (r = − 0.46, p < 0.05). BMI percentile was positively associated with aortic PWV (r = 0.61, p < 0.05). Overall findings suggest that reduced PA and higher body mass in children with ASD are associated with increased arterial stiffness which may have a detrimental impact on overall cardiovascular health.
Children; Autism spectrum disorder; Blood pressure; Cardiovascular; Physical activity; Accelerometry
As the number of children diagnosed with Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) continues to rise, so too will the eventual number of adults with ASD. This is important for many reasons, including findings that the prevalence of metabolic disease, hypertension, and dyslipidemia is higher in adults with ASD compared to adults without ASD (Croen et al. [
Increased arterial stiffness is a well-accepted indicator of subclinical CVD risk in children (Urbina et al. [
Two prominent risk factors that contribute to a hastening of the atherosclerotic process and increased arterial stiffness are low levels of physical activity (PA) and overweight/obesity. Low levels of PA and overweight/obesity in children have been associated with increased arterial stiffness (Idris et al. [
Purposive sampling was used to identify possible participants for the study (Creswell [
Thirty children with ASD participated in this study. Inclusion criteria included a parent report of an ASD diagnosis from a psychologist or by school personnel. Current and Lifetime scores on the Social Communication Questionnaire were conducted to screen for the presence of an ASD diagnosis, with inclusion criteria for the study being a lifetime score of 14 or above (Eaves et al. [
Following consent, parents/guardians provided information on child medical history and medication use via questionnaire. Children underwent anthropometric measures and cardiovascular measures. Children were fit with an accelerometer and parents received detailed instructions on proper device placement and time allotment for the child to wear the device.
Height was measured using a stadiometer and weight with an electronic scale (Tanita SC-240). Both measures were made in duplicate and averaged for final analyses. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as weight (kg)/height (m)
Parents were asked to assist their child in wearing an ActiGraph Link accelerometer (ActiGraph LLC, Pensacola, FL, USA) at the waist on an elasticized belt, and positioned in line with the right mid-axillary line, for at least 7 consecutive days (plus an initial familiarization day). The belt was to be removed for water-related activities and sleep. Data were collected at a sampling rate of 80 Hz, and subsequently downloaded using ActiLife Software (version 6.13.2, ActiGraph LLC). Raw accelerometer data were integrated into 15 s epochs and with the low-frequency extension filter enabled for the activity counts analysis (Cain et al. [
Brachial BP was measured with children in the seated position using a validated, automated brachial oscillometric cuff (Mobil-O-Graph, I.E.M., Stolberg, Germany) (Weber et al. [
All data are reported as mean ± SD. Normality of distribution was assessed qualitatively using histograms and Q–Q plots as well as quantitatively using the Shapiro–Wilk test and the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. Correlations of interest were investigated using Spearman correlation coefficients. All analyses were performed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, version 23, Chicago, IL) with significance set a priori as p < 0.05.
Twenty-two of 30 children met inclusion criteria for usable PA measures (minimum of 4 days with ≥ 10 h of daily wear time). Brachial BP was successfully measured in 26 of 30 children. Aortic hemodynamic parameters were further obtained in 19 of 30 children. Reason for missing data was excessive movement artifact causing signal noise, particularly during the sub-diastolic phase of measurement. Overall, 15 children (2 girls) had both PA measures and aortic hemodynamic measures and were thusly included in final analyses.
Descriptive characteristics for included study participants (n = 15) are presented in Table 1. Mean age for the children included was 7 years of age. Four children were taking prescription medications: 3 for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (methylphenidate, guanfacine, clonidine), 1 for asthma (montelukast sodium) and 1 for obsessive compulsive disorder (fluoxetine). Additionally, 2 children were taking over-the-counter agents for allergies (cetirizine and fluticasone, as needed) and digestive needs related to indigestion and constipation (polyethylene glycol and lansoprazole, as needed).
Descriptive characteristics (n = 15)
Variable, units Mean ± SD Age, years 7 ± 2 SCQ-L 23.06 ± 5.89 SCQ-C 15.93 ± 3.63 Vineland Communication 82.3 ± 12.2 Daily living skills 81.2 ± 15.6 Socialization 77.7 ± 11.7 Adaptive behavior composite 77.7 ± 10.4 BMI, percentile 67.8 ± 25.6 Brachial SBP (mmHg) 107 ± 8 Brachial DBP (mmHg) 67 ± 6 Heart Rate (bpm) 95 ± 16 Aortic SBP (mmHg) 98 ± 9 Aortic DBP (mmHg) 69 ± 6 Aortic pulse wave velocity (m/s) 4.5 ± 0.3 MVPA (min/day) 44.7 ± 17.8 Mean steps/day 7752 ± 1763
SCQ-L social communication questionnaire-lifetime, SCQ-C social communication questionnaire-current, Vineland Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales standard scores with M = 100, SD = 15
The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales were completed for 13 of the 15 participants
BMI body mass index, SBP systolic blood pressure, DBP diastolic blood pressure, MVPA moderate-vigorous physical activity
Three of 15 children met recommendations for ≥ 60-min of MVPA per day, and 1 of 15 met recommendations for ≥ 11,500 steps/day (Adams et al. [
Correlation coefficients for measures among children with ASD (n = 15)
Variable MVPA Steps/day BMIpercentile SBPbrachial SBPaortic PWV Steps/day 0.782 BMIpercentile − 0.304 − 0.440* SBPbrachial − 0.265 − 0.201 0.604* SBPaortic − 0.492* − 0.489* 0.505* 0.667* PWV − 0.462* − 0.586* 0.611* 0.670* 0.907* Age − 0.144 0.267 − 0.178 0.014 0.102 0.01
MVPA moderate-vigorous physical activity, BMI body mass index, SBP systolic blood pressure, PWV pulse wave velocity
*p < 0.05
Blood pressure (BP) remains a standard clinical measure with respect to assessing risk for CVD. BP is conventionally measured in the arm (i.e. brachial artery) but this may not accurately reflect hemodynamic stress placed on major blood vessels throughout the body such as the aorta or target organs throughout the body such as the heart (Roman et al. [
Lower PA in children is associated with obesity and higher blood pressure (Leary et al. [
Of particular concern, both lower PA and higher BMI were each associated with higher aortic BP and aortic stiffness in children with ASD. According to recently published normative data collected in over 1400 typically developing children without ASD, based on age and sex, children with ASD herein were in the 95th percentile for aortic BP and aortic stiffness (Elmenhorst et al. [
In children without ASD, literature is emerging noting favorable associations between increased PA (volume and intensity) and reduced arterial stiffness (Sakuragi et al. [
The gold standard measure of aortic stiffness is carotid-femoral PWV using applanation tonometry (Townsend et al. [
Limitations to this study should be noted. The final sample size for this study was small and this is a notable limitation. Medications used to treat health conditions associated with ASD may have impacted blood pressure and arterial stiffness (Kelly et al. [
In conclusion, lower levels of PA and higher BMI were each associated with increased aortic BP and increased aortic stiffness, indices of subclinical CVD risk. Children with ASD that do not engage in appropriate levels of habitual PA and maintain a healthy body habitus have less than ideal cardiovascular health. Studies will be needed to explore if promoting increased PA and weight management in children with ASD has favorable effects on cardiovascular health, potentially mitigating future risk for CVD.
Support for this study provided by the Jim and Julie Boeheim Foundation and the John P. Hussman Foundation.
All authors were involved with study conceptualization, study design, study analyses, data interpretation and manuscript preparation. KSH oversaw all cardiovascular data acquisition and interpreted all cardiovascular results. TVB oversaw measurement of height, weight, and physical activity. TVB also analyzed all physical activity data and interpreted all results. NR oversaw all behavioral assessments and interpretations. LC, BAM and CEA assisted with participant recruitment. MLN assisted with study visit organization and data collection.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants (guardians) included in the study.
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By Kevin S. Heffernan; Luis Columna; Natalie Russo; Beth A. Myers; Christine E. Ashby; Michael L. Norris and Tiago V. Barreira